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Research Article

Development, gender, and asymmetries between Mexico and Japan

Received 14 Jan 2021
Accepted 17 Jan 2021
Published online: 15 Feb 2021
 
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Abstract

The gender gaps in Mexico and Japan can be fruitfully compared even though the economic development of these two countries is at very different levels. The purpose of this paper is to compare gender equity between a developed and an underdeveloped country through a comparative and descriptive analysis using gender and macroeconomic indexes. The World Economic Forum points out that Mexico was ranked 75th and Japan 80th out of 153 countries on the Global Gender Gap Index in 2006, but by 2020 Mexico reached 25th place, and Japan had fallen to the 121st. In this paper, indicators and statistics will function as an aid in understanding gender gaps, macroeconomic differences, and the development of women in Mexico and Japan. The time reference for this study includes the periods before and after the Great International Financial Crisis (GFC), a watershed in global economic development until 2020.

Acknowledgment

This work is the result of the statistical support provided by Jairo Cisneros, Daniel Mirón and Adheli Galindo, scholarship holders from CONACYT, Yasmín Águila and Díaz from the project “Women, Social Reproduction, Public Budgets and Prospects for Socioeconomic Integration Mexico-Central America” (PAPIIT IN304420), UNAM General Department of Academic Staff Affairs.

Notes

1 After the collapse of the bubble during the late ‘80s and early ‘90s, the financial crisis and the high NPLs and low interest rates, the BoJ induced deflation.

2 The Montevideo Strategy for the Implementation of the Regional Gender Agenda in the framework of the Sustainable Development of 2030, approved by the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) members, stated during the 13th Regional Conference on Women in Latin America and the Caribbean, aims at guiding the implementation of the Gender Regional Agenda.

3 To overcome these problems, 74 measures were established in ten axes of implementation: (1) Regulatory framework, (2) institutionality, (3) participation, (4) construction and building capability, (5) financing, (6) communication, (7) technology, (8) cooperation, (9) information systems, and (10) monitoring, evaluation, and accountability (ECLAC, 2017 ECLAC . 2017. “Montevideo Strategy for Implementation of the Regional Gender Agenda within the Sustainable Development Framework by 2030”. Accessed November 10, 2020. https://bit.ly/3jCLHQn  [Google Scholar], 21, 22).

4 The patriarchal cultural patterns in Latin America also underlie the wage gap, vocational orientation, the social organization of care and the violence perpetrated against women and girls. It is embedded in daily life. The Montevideo Strategy defines the need “…to move from a culture of privilege to one of rights and equality, dismantling the androcentric understanding of the human being and its expression in public policies, and including boys, young men and men as agents and beneficiaries of this change. It is necessary, therefore, to eliminate all types of sex-based distinction, exclusion or restriction aimed at or resulting in the denial of effective enjoyment of human rights in the political, economic, social, cultural and environmental sphere (ECLAC 2016 ECLAC. 2016. “Montevideo Strategy for Implementation of the Regional Gender Agenda within the Sustainable Development Framework by 2030.” https://bit.ly/2XjCa6x. [Google Scholar], 17).

5 Precisely, Mexico's GDP per capita was equivalent to 21.22% compared to that of Japan in 2018.

6 APEC consists of 21 countries: Australia, Brunei Darussalam, Canada, Chile, China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, Taiwan, United States, and Vietnam. Statistics available at the World Bank do not provide information for Taiwan because it is considered part of China.

7 The Gini coefficient is an indicator used to measure the inequality degree in the distribution of income between individuals or households within an economy. Its value ranges from zero to one; the higher the index, the greater the inequality in income distribution. It measures income inequality on a scale from 0 (everyone has the same income) to 100 (all income is for a single person) and in practice it is between 20 and 80 for the countries of the world.

8 Data from 2000 to 2015–16 obtained from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), for 2018, obtained from and World Economic Forum (WEF).

9 Average amount of money a family earns per year, after tax. Source: http://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/es/topics/income-es/

10 There are three basic concepts underlying the Global Gender Gap Index of the World Economic Forum, creating the basis of the way in which the indicators were chosen, the way in which data is treated and the way in which the scale can be used. First, the index focuses on measuring gaps rather than levels. Second, it captures gaps in outcome variables rather than gaps in input variables. Third, it ranks countries according to gender equality rather than women’s empowerment. The publication of the Global Gender Gap Index was developed in 2006. The value of this index is calculated by taking the average of the four sub-indexes from which it is composed: (1) Economic Participation and economic Opportunity subindex; (2) Educational Attainment subindex; (3) Health and Survival subindex; (4) Political Empowerment subindex.

11 Education attainment 0.949 and Health and survival 0.955 were the same in Japan and Mexico as it is described by The Global Gender Gap Report (World Economic Forum, 2018 World Economic Forum . 2018. “The Global Gender Gap Report 2018.” Accessed November 10, 2020. https://bit.ly/3tCDoIV  [Google Scholar], 139, 185).

12 In this quotation it is not mentioned if they are only in universities or research centers in general.

13 The National System of Researchers (SNI) of Mexico was created on July 26, 1984. Its purpose is to recognize the research work in the country, through a scientific and technological competition, and thereby contribute to increasing international competitiveness in the matter and the resolution of national problems. As a prize, distinctions and economic incentives are awarded that certify the quality, productivity, significance, and impact of the work of the selected researchers.

14 The economically active population is made up of all people aged 12 and over who carried out some type of economic activity (employed population), or who actively sought to do so (open unemployed population), in the two months prior to the week of lifting the EAP. It is classified into the employed population and the open unemployed population or the active unemployed.

15 The gender wage gap is defined as the difference between median earnings of men and women relative to median earnings of men. Data refer to full-time employees on the one hand and to self-employed on the other (OCDE 2018 OCDE. 2018. “Mujeres en México, el talento olvidado.” Retrieved November 24, 2019, from: http://bit.ly/2S87pjq. [Google Scholar]).

16 World Bank, database 2019.

17 2014 was considered as the year with the highest number of countries with information, only missing China and Papua New Guinea.

18 It is important to be clear about the difference between the unemployment rate and the unemployment growth rate. The first refers to the percentage of the population that is unemployed with respect to the economically active population, while the second refers to the variations in unemployment from one year to another.

19 Informal employment refers primarily to employment in enterprises that lack registration and social security coverage for their employees (OECD 2009 OECD . 2009. “Is Informal Normal? Towards More and Better Jobs in Developing Countries.” https://www.oecd.org/development/risinginformalemploymentwillincreasepoverty.htm. [Google Scholar]). It also refers to self-employment and precarious employment in formal enterprises. A distinctive feature of this type of employment is the lack of social coverage and other related benefits applicable to formal employment. (The World Bank 2014 The World Bank. 2014. “Informal Economy and the World Bank.” https://bit.ly/2MxmfPK. [Google Scholar], 6)

20 The Seven primary drivers of women’s economic empowerment are: (1) Tackling adverse norms and promoting positive role models; (2) Ensuring legal protection and reforming discriminatory laws and regulations; (3) Recognizing and redistributing unpaid word and care, (4) Building assets – Digital, financial and property; (5) changing business culture and practice; (6) Improving public sector practices in employment and procurement; (7) Strengthening visibility, collective voice and representation (UNHLP 2017 UNHLP. 2017. “Leave No One Behind, Taking Action for Transformational Change on Women’s Economic Empowerment, Secretariat, UN Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Women’s Economic Empowerment.” [Google Scholar], 4).

 

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